In addition to pressure on the availability and prices
of resources consumed by local residents—such as energy,
food and basic raw materials—the main natural resources
4 DESA Discussion Paper No. 29
at risk from tourism development are land, freshwater and
marine resources. Without careful land-use planning, for
instance, rapid tourism development can intensify competition
for land resources with other uses and lead to rising
land prices and increased pressure to build on agricultural
land. Moreover, intensive tourism development can
threaten natural landscapes, notably through deforestation,
loss of wetlands and soil erosion. Tourism development
in coastal areas—including hotel, airport and road
construction—is often a matter for increasing concern
worldwide as it can lead to sand mining, beach erosion
and other forms of land degradation.
Freshwater availability for competing agricultural,
industrial, household and other uses is rapidly becoming
one of the most critical natural resource issues in many
countries and regions. Rapid expansion of the tourism
industry, which tends to be extremely water-intensive,
can exacerbate this problem by placing considerable
pressure on scarce water supply in many destinations.
Water scarcity can pose a serious limitation to future
tourism development in many low-lying coastal areas
and small islands that have limited supplies of surface
water, and whose groundwater may be contaminated by
saltwater intrusion. Over-consumption by many tourist
facilities—notably large hotel resorts and golf courses—
can limit current supplies available to farmers and local
populations in water-scarce regions and thus lead to serious
shortages and price rises. In addition, pollution of
available freshwater sources, some of which may be
associated with tourism-related activities, can exacerbate
local shortages.
Rapid expansion of coastal and ocean tourism
activities, such as snorkelling, scuba diving and sport
fishing, can threaten fisheries and other marine
resources. Disturbance to marine aquatic life can also be
caused by the intensive use of thrill craft, such as jet skis,
frequent boat tours and boat anchors. Anchor damage is
now regarded as one of the most serious threats to coral
reefs in the Caribbean Sea, in view of the growing number
of both small boats and large cruise ships sailing in
the region (see Michael Hall, 2001). Severe damage to
coral reefs and other marine resources may, in turn, not
only discourage further tourism and threaten the future of
local tourist industries, but also damage local fisheries.
Thursday, June 17, 2010
Interaction between tourism and
While tourism provides considerable economic
benefits for many countries, regions and communities, its
rapid expansion can also be responsible for adverse environmental,
as well as socio-cultural, impact.13 Natural
resource depletion and environmental degradation associated
with tourism activities pose severe problems to
many tourism-rich regions. The fact that most tourists
chose to maintain their relatively high patterns of consumption
(and waste generation) when they reach their
destinations can be a particularly serious problem for
developing countries and regions without the appropriate
means for protecting their natural resources and local
ecosystems from the pressures of mass tourism.
The two main areas of environmental impact of
tourism are: pressure on natural resources and damage to
ecosystems. Furthermore, it is now widely recognized
not only that uncontrolled tourism expansion is likely to
lead to environmental degradation, but also that environmental
degradation, in turn, poses a serious threat to
tourism activities.
benefits for many countries, regions and communities, its
rapid expansion can also be responsible for adverse environmental,
as well as socio-cultural, impact.13 Natural
resource depletion and environmental degradation associated
with tourism activities pose severe problems to
many tourism-rich regions. The fact that most tourists
chose to maintain their relatively high patterns of consumption
(and waste generation) when they reach their
destinations can be a particularly serious problem for
developing countries and regions without the appropriate
means for protecting their natural resources and local
ecosystems from the pressures of mass tourism.
The two main areas of environmental impact of
tourism are: pressure on natural resources and damage to
ecosystems. Furthermore, it is now widely recognized
not only that uncontrolled tourism expansion is likely to
lead to environmental degradation, but also that environmental
degradation, in turn, poses a serious threat to
tourism activities.
Economic benefits of tourism
Tourism comprises an extensive range of economic
activities and can be considered the largest industry in
the world.5 International tourism is one of the fastest
growing sectors of the global economy. During the
1990s, when the globalization of tourism reached
unprecedented proportions, international tourism receipts
had a much higher average annual growth rate (7.3%)
than that of gross world product.
By 1999, international
tourism receipts accounted for more than 8% of the
worldwide export value of goods and services, overtaking
the export value of other leading world industries
such as automotive products, chemicals, and computer
and office equipment.
A significant proportion of world tourism expenditure
takes place within industrialized countries:
Europe alone accounts for around half of annual international
tourism receipt.
Tourism, however,
is the only major service sector in which developing countries have consistently recorded trade surpluses
relative to the rest of the world. Between 1980 and
1996, for instance, their travel account surplus
increased from $4.6 billion to $65.9 billion, due primarily
to the impressive growth of inbound tourism to
countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Asia and
Pacific regions (UN, 1999a). The 1990s also experienced
a significant growth of international tourism
receipts in the 49 least developed countries: total
tourism receipts in these countries more than doubled
from US$ 1 billion in 1992 to over US$ 2.2 billion in
1998.
Tourism is now the second largest source of foreign
exchange earnings in the least developed countries
(LDCs) as a whole.
Tourism has also become the main source of
income for an increasing number of Small Island
Developing States (SIDS). Foreign exchange earnings
can, however, vary significantly among these tourismdriven
economies because of ‘leakages’ arising from
imports of equipment for construction and consumer
goods required by tourists, repatriation of profits earned
by foreign investors and amortization of foreign debt
incurred in tourist development.
Besides export earnings, international tourism also
generates an increasingly significant share of government
(national and local) tax revenues throughout the
world. In addition, the development of tourism as a
whole is usually accompanied by considerable investments
in infrastructure, such as airports, roads, water and
sewerage facilities, telecommunications and other public
utilities. Such infrastructural improvements not only generate
benefits to tourists but can also contribute to
improving the living conditions of local populations.
This increase in social overhead capital can also help
attract other industries to a disadvantaged area and thus
be a stimulus to regional economic development.
The tourism sector is an increasingly important
source of employment—including in tourism-related sectors,
such as construction and agriculture—primarily for
unskilled labour, migrants from poor rural areas, people
who prefer to work part-time, and notably women.
Because the sector is relatively labour-intensive, investments
in tourism tend to generate a larger and more rapid
increase in employment than equal investment in other
economic activities.
Furthermore, given that the sector
provides a considerable amount of jobs for women and
unskilled workers, tourism can significantly contribute to
empowering women and alleviating poverty.
At the same time, available data suggest that most
workers in the tourism sector, notably in hotels and catering,
tend to earn less than workers in socially comparable
occupations in both developed and developing countries
(ILO, 2001). In addition, the differential tends to be larger
in less developed countries and regions, particularly those
with high rates of unemployment amongst unskilled labour.
Informal employment relations in small and medium-sized
enterprises, which employ about half of the labour force in
the hotel and catering sub-sectors worldwide, also contribute
to a relatively high proportion of child labour and
non-remunerated employment and other unacceptable
forms of social exploitation in many countries.
The increasing reliance of less diversified
economies on tourism also increases their vulnerability
to seasonal aspects of tourism and to shocks, such as, natural
disasters, regional wars and other unexpected events.
The recent crisis generated by fear of international terrorism
and regional conflict, for example, caused devastating
immediate effects on tourism-dependent economies.12
In addition, sudden changes in consumer tastes and sharp
economic downturns pose significant risks to such
economies, given that demand for mass tourism tends to
be relatively income-elastic and can produce drastic negative
responses to economic recession in source markets.
Nonetheless, it is now generally recognized that
tourism can make a vital contribution to employment,
export receipts and national income in most countries
and regions. Furthermore, tourism is often identified as
the most promising driving force for the economic development
of less developed countries and regions endowed
with areas of natural beauty—including Small Island
Developing States—because it offers them a valuable
opportunity for economic diversification.
activities and can be considered the largest industry in
the world.5 International tourism is one of the fastest
growing sectors of the global economy. During the
1990s, when the globalization of tourism reached
unprecedented proportions, international tourism receipts
had a much higher average annual growth rate (7.3%)
than that of gross world product.
By 1999, international
tourism receipts accounted for more than 8% of the
worldwide export value of goods and services, overtaking
the export value of other leading world industries
such as automotive products, chemicals, and computer
and office equipment.
A significant proportion of world tourism expenditure
takes place within industrialized countries:
Europe alone accounts for around half of annual international
tourism receipt.
Tourism, however,
is the only major service sector in which developing countries have consistently recorded trade surpluses
relative to the rest of the world. Between 1980 and
1996, for instance, their travel account surplus
increased from $4.6 billion to $65.9 billion, due primarily
to the impressive growth of inbound tourism to
countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Asia and
Pacific regions (UN, 1999a). The 1990s also experienced
a significant growth of international tourism
receipts in the 49 least developed countries: total
tourism receipts in these countries more than doubled
from US$ 1 billion in 1992 to over US$ 2.2 billion in
1998.
Tourism is now the second largest source of foreign
exchange earnings in the least developed countries
(LDCs) as a whole.
Tourism has also become the main source of
income for an increasing number of Small Island
Developing States (SIDS). Foreign exchange earnings
can, however, vary significantly among these tourismdriven
economies because of ‘leakages’ arising from
imports of equipment for construction and consumer
goods required by tourists, repatriation of profits earned
by foreign investors and amortization of foreign debt
incurred in tourist development.
Besides export earnings, international tourism also
generates an increasingly significant share of government
(national and local) tax revenues throughout the
world. In addition, the development of tourism as a
whole is usually accompanied by considerable investments
in infrastructure, such as airports, roads, water and
sewerage facilities, telecommunications and other public
utilities. Such infrastructural improvements not only generate
benefits to tourists but can also contribute to
improving the living conditions of local populations.
This increase in social overhead capital can also help
attract other industries to a disadvantaged area and thus
be a stimulus to regional economic development.
The tourism sector is an increasingly important
source of employment—including in tourism-related sectors,
such as construction and agriculture—primarily for
unskilled labour, migrants from poor rural areas, people
who prefer to work part-time, and notably women.
Because the sector is relatively labour-intensive, investments
in tourism tend to generate a larger and more rapid
increase in employment than equal investment in other
economic activities.
Furthermore, given that the sector
provides a considerable amount of jobs for women and
unskilled workers, tourism can significantly contribute to
empowering women and alleviating poverty.
At the same time, available data suggest that most
workers in the tourism sector, notably in hotels and catering,
tend to earn less than workers in socially comparable
occupations in both developed and developing countries
(ILO, 2001). In addition, the differential tends to be larger
in less developed countries and regions, particularly those
with high rates of unemployment amongst unskilled labour.
Informal employment relations in small and medium-sized
enterprises, which employ about half of the labour force in
the hotel and catering sub-sectors worldwide, also contribute
to a relatively high proportion of child labour and
non-remunerated employment and other unacceptable
forms of social exploitation in many countries.
The increasing reliance of less diversified
economies on tourism also increases their vulnerability
to seasonal aspects of tourism and to shocks, such as, natural
disasters, regional wars and other unexpected events.
The recent crisis generated by fear of international terrorism
and regional conflict, for example, caused devastating
immediate effects on tourism-dependent economies.12
In addition, sudden changes in consumer tastes and sharp
economic downturns pose significant risks to such
economies, given that demand for mass tourism tends to
be relatively income-elastic and can produce drastic negative
responses to economic recession in source markets.
Nonetheless, it is now generally recognized that
tourism can make a vital contribution to employment,
export receipts and national income in most countries
and regions. Furthermore, tourism is often identified as
the most promising driving force for the economic development
of less developed countries and regions endowed
with areas of natural beauty—including Small Island
Developing States—because it offers them a valuable
opportunity for economic diversification.
Recent and future trends of sustainable Tourism
Tourism can be considered one of the most remarkable
socio-economic phenomena of the twentieth century.
From an activity “enjoyed by only a small group of relatively
well-off people” during the first half of the last
century, it gradually became a mass phenomenon during
the post-World War II period, particularly from the 1970s
onwards.1 It now reaches an increasingly larger number
of people throughout the world and can be considered a
vital dimension of global integration.2
Although domestic tourism currently accounts for
approximately 80% of all tourist activity (UN, 1999a),
many countries tend to give priority to international
tourism because, while the former basically involves a
regional redistribution of national income, the latter has
now become the world’s largest source of foreign
exchange receipts. According to the latest figures compiled
by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), foreign
exchange earnings from international tourism reached a
peak of US$ 476 billion in 2000, which was larger than
the export value of petroleum products, motor vehicles,
telecommunications equipment or any other single category
of product or service (WTO, 2001a).
International tourist arrivals grew at an annual
average rate of 4.3% during the 1990s, despite major
international political and economic crises, such as the
Gulf War and the Asian financial crisis.3 According to the
latest WTO figures, the turn of the millennium recorded
one of the most impressive annual growth rates in international
tourism. As table 1 shows, all regions of the
world recorded significant growth in international
tourism in 2000, during which the number of international
arrivals grew at an extraordinary rate of nearly 7% to
reach almost 700 million arrivals.
The September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United
States, however, appear to have had a more serious
impact on the tourist sector than any other major international
crisis in recent decades. The attacks had a particularly
severe impact on air transport, business travel and
long-haul travel. Worldwide travel reservations were
estimated to have dropped by 15% at the end of October
2001, although not every destination nor every part of the
tourism sector was badly affected (see WTO, 2001c). For
example, while air transport and luxury hotels have suffered
from considerable fall in demand, travel within the
same country or region, as well as travel by rail and road,
appear to have weathered the worst effects of the crisis,
or even benefited from it.
Nevertheless, initial forecasts of 3-4% rise in international
tourist arrivals for 2001, made before the
September 2001 attacks, were subsequently revised
downwards to around a 1% increase over the 2000 figures
(WTO, 2001c). The latest WTO (2002) data show
that there was an actual decline of 0.6% in international
arrivals, to a total of 693 million, in 2001. Given that the
northern hemisphere summer holiday season was coming
to end by the time the attacks took place, this significant
drop confirms that the short-term impacts of the attacks
were devastating to international tourism as a whole. The
last four months of 2001, in fact, recorded a drop of
almost 9% in arrivals worldwide and substantial decreases
in all regions of the world
It is worth noting, however, that this considerable
fall in international arrivals was caused not only by a
widespread fear of traveling generated by the attacks—
particularly in airplanes and to certain destinations—but
also by a downturn in the world economy. The economic
downturn that began in the United States during the first
half of 2001 had already been affecting the tourism sector
before the terrorist attacks were carried out. The
attacks aggravated the economic slowdown already
under way.4 The expected recovery in world tourism in
the near future will thus depend on the evolution of the
world economy, amongst other factors, including the possibility
of further terrorist acts or regional conflicts.
Some destinations will in any case experience a prolonged
decline in tourism revenues—regardless of any
world economic improvements—for various reasons,
including proximity to areas of regional conflict.
In the medium and long term, however, international
tourism is expected to resume its rapid growth, in view
of rising living standards and discretionary incomes,
falling real costs of travel, expansion and improvement
of various transport modes, increasing amounts of free
time and other factors. This helps to explain why WTO
(2001c) has reiterated its long-term forecasts, made
before the September 2001 attacks, of an average annual
growth rate in international arrivals of over 4% in the
period up to 2020. The number of international arrivals is
thus expected to reach the striking mark of 1 billion by
2010 and 1.6 billion by 2020
socio-economic phenomena of the twentieth century.
From an activity “enjoyed by only a small group of relatively
well-off people” during the first half of the last
century, it gradually became a mass phenomenon during
the post-World War II period, particularly from the 1970s
onwards.1 It now reaches an increasingly larger number
of people throughout the world and can be considered a
vital dimension of global integration.2
Although domestic tourism currently accounts for
approximately 80% of all tourist activity (UN, 1999a),
many countries tend to give priority to international
tourism because, while the former basically involves a
regional redistribution of national income, the latter has
now become the world’s largest source of foreign
exchange receipts. According to the latest figures compiled
by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), foreign
exchange earnings from international tourism reached a
peak of US$ 476 billion in 2000, which was larger than
the export value of petroleum products, motor vehicles,
telecommunications equipment or any other single category
of product or service (WTO, 2001a).
International tourist arrivals grew at an annual
average rate of 4.3% during the 1990s, despite major
international political and economic crises, such as the
Gulf War and the Asian financial crisis.3 According to the
latest WTO figures, the turn of the millennium recorded
one of the most impressive annual growth rates in international
tourism. As table 1 shows, all regions of the
world recorded significant growth in international
tourism in 2000, during which the number of international
arrivals grew at an extraordinary rate of nearly 7% to
reach almost 700 million arrivals.
The September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United
States, however, appear to have had a more serious
impact on the tourist sector than any other major international
crisis in recent decades. The attacks had a particularly
severe impact on air transport, business travel and
long-haul travel. Worldwide travel reservations were
estimated to have dropped by 15% at the end of October
2001, although not every destination nor every part of the
tourism sector was badly affected (see WTO, 2001c). For
example, while air transport and luxury hotels have suffered
from considerable fall in demand, travel within the
same country or region, as well as travel by rail and road,
appear to have weathered the worst effects of the crisis,
or even benefited from it.
Nevertheless, initial forecasts of 3-4% rise in international
tourist arrivals for 2001, made before the
September 2001 attacks, were subsequently revised
downwards to around a 1% increase over the 2000 figures
(WTO, 2001c). The latest WTO (2002) data show
that there was an actual decline of 0.6% in international
arrivals, to a total of 693 million, in 2001. Given that the
northern hemisphere summer holiday season was coming
to end by the time the attacks took place, this significant
drop confirms that the short-term impacts of the attacks
were devastating to international tourism as a whole. The
last four months of 2001, in fact, recorded a drop of
almost 9% in arrivals worldwide and substantial decreases
in all regions of the world
It is worth noting, however, that this considerable
fall in international arrivals was caused not only by a
widespread fear of traveling generated by the attacks—
particularly in airplanes and to certain destinations—but
also by a downturn in the world economy. The economic
downturn that began in the United States during the first
half of 2001 had already been affecting the tourism sector
before the terrorist attacks were carried out. The
attacks aggravated the economic slowdown already
under way.4 The expected recovery in world tourism in
the near future will thus depend on the evolution of the
world economy, amongst other factors, including the possibility
of further terrorist acts or regional conflicts.
Some destinations will in any case experience a prolonged
decline in tourism revenues—regardless of any
world economic improvements—for various reasons,
including proximity to areas of regional conflict.
In the medium and long term, however, international
tourism is expected to resume its rapid growth, in view
of rising living standards and discretionary incomes,
falling real costs of travel, expansion and improvement
of various transport modes, increasing amounts of free
time and other factors. This helps to explain why WTO
(2001c) has reiterated its long-term forecasts, made
before the September 2001 attacks, of an average annual
growth rate in international arrivals of over 4% in the
period up to 2020. The number of international arrivals is
thus expected to reach the striking mark of 1 billion by
2010 and 1.6 billion by 2020
Thursday, May 20, 2010
El Gulf El Kebeer
Date of Announcement : 2007 
Area : 48523 km2
Type : Natural and Cultural National Park Protected Area
The western side of the Gilf Kebir was explored in 1932 by the Clayton-Almásy Expedition, headed by Sir Robert East Clayton and Count László E. Almásy, and accompanied by Patrick. A Clayton, Squadron Leader H. W. G. J. Penderel, three Arab car drivers and a cook. The expedition explored the area by Gypsy moth plane, by car and on foot.
The Uweinat mountain range at the very south of the plateau is shared between Egypt, Libya and Sudan.
In 2006, Gilf Kebir Desert was the site of an extreme sports record from Italian runner Stefano Miglietti. On the 14th of December, 2006, Miglietti crossed this egyptian desert by foot. He spent only 3 days and 5 hours to cover the full 340 km trail, running at an average speed of 9 km/h. He started from Wadi Mashi and arrived at Silica Glass, a desert close to the Gilf Kebir desert.
The plateau was the site for various British logistical operations during the second world war, and due to the extremely dry conditions and lack of population, remains of this occupation are often found intact. A large airbase, including huge navigation arrows laid out in army petrol cans, can still be seen.
It was also the site of the recent discovery of a bag which had been lost in the second world war by a dispatch rider (Alec Ross) of the long range desert Group, part of the British Army. This contained the rider's personal letters and photographs, and had been well preserved.
The Gilf Kebir is known for its prehistoric (Neolithic) petroglyphs
• Karkur Talh and Karkur Murr: major eastern valleys of the Uweinat contain one of the richest concentrations of rock art in the whole Sahara.
• Western Uweinat: Shelters under the huge granite boulders in the western Uweinat contain numerous paintings, including the famous sites of Ain Doua.
• Jebel Arkenu, Jebel Kissu & Yerguehda Hill, the lesser granite massifs around Uweinat have many smaller sites.
• Mogharet el Kantara in the southern Gilf Kebir contains only one known rock art site, a cave discovered by Shaw & party in 1936.
• Wadi Sura in the northwestern Gilf Kebir: the "Cave of swimmers", discovered by the Hungarian Count László Almásy The English Patient), plus many other paintings nearby.
• The North-western half of the Gilf Kebir aside from Wadi Sura has only a few scattered engravings, of an apparently very ancient age.
• In January 2003, Zarzora Expeditions and Jacopo Foggini independently announced the discovery of a major new rock art site in the Western Gilf Kebir.
Area : 48523 km2
Type : Natural and Cultural National Park Protected Area
The western side of the Gilf Kebir was explored in 1932 by the Clayton-Almásy Expedition, headed by Sir Robert East Clayton and Count László E. Almásy, and accompanied by Patrick. A Clayton, Squadron Leader H. W. G. J. Penderel, three Arab car drivers and a cook. The expedition explored the area by Gypsy moth plane, by car and on foot.
The Uweinat mountain range at the very south of the plateau is shared between Egypt, Libya and Sudan.
In 2006, Gilf Kebir Desert was the site of an extreme sports record from Italian runner Stefano Miglietti. On the 14th of December, 2006, Miglietti crossed this egyptian desert by foot. He spent only 3 days and 5 hours to cover the full 340 km trail, running at an average speed of 9 km/h. He started from Wadi Mashi and arrived at Silica Glass, a desert close to the Gilf Kebir desert.
The plateau was the site for various British logistical operations during the second world war, and due to the extremely dry conditions and lack of population, remains of this occupation are often found intact. A large airbase, including huge navigation arrows laid out in army petrol cans, can still be seen.
It was also the site of the recent discovery of a bag which had been lost in the second world war by a dispatch rider (Alec Ross) of the long range desert Group, part of the British Army. This contained the rider's personal letters and photographs, and had been well preserved.
The Gilf Kebir is known for its prehistoric (Neolithic) petroglyphs
• Karkur Talh and Karkur Murr: major eastern valleys of the Uweinat contain one of the richest concentrations of rock art in the whole Sahara.
• Western Uweinat: Shelters under the huge granite boulders in the western Uweinat contain numerous paintings, including the famous sites of Ain Doua.
• Jebel Arkenu, Jebel Kissu & Yerguehda Hill, the lesser granite massifs around Uweinat have many smaller sites.
• Mogharet el Kantara in the southern Gilf Kebir contains only one known rock art site, a cave discovered by Shaw & party in 1936.
• Wadi Sura in the northwestern Gilf Kebir: the "Cave of swimmers", discovered by the Hungarian Count László Almásy The English Patient), plus many other paintings nearby.
• The North-western half of the Gilf Kebir aside from Wadi Sura has only a few scattered engravings, of an apparently very ancient age.
• In January 2003, Zarzora Expeditions and Jacopo Foggini independently announced the discovery of a major new rock art site in the Western Gilf Kebir.
Red Sea Northern Islands
Date of Announcement : 2006
Area : 1991 km2
Type : Developing resources protected area
Area : 1991 km2
Type : Developing resources protected area
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